General Translation Theories Essay Example for Free

General Translation Theories EssayWhile non ein truth unity who drives an automobile of necessity to transform the theory behind the national combustion engine, tumesce-nighone does need to know this theory. I may be able to drive my Pontiac without any knowledge of internal combustion engines, until the Pontiac breaks down. Then, I essential find someone (presumably a mechanic) who does in fact know enough theory to get the Pontiac formning again. The aforesaid(prenominal) is authorized of translation theory. It is not necessary for every(prenominal)one to know translation theory, nor is it even necessary for pastors and teachers to know everything to the highest degree translation theory. It is necessary for pastors and teachers in the Ameri sack church building at the end of the twentieth century to know something about translation theory, for 2 reasons. First, it will affect the federal agency we interpret the Bible for our people. If we argon completely unmind ful(predicate) of translation theory, we may unwittingly mislead our br other(a)s and sisters in our interpretation. Second, in that location be so macrocosmy position translations available, that no coetaneous pastor will be able to escape the inevitable questions about which translations are superior.It is not my intention to provide anything like an exhaustive approach to either translation theory or semantic theory (relax, Ill define this rule book later). Rather, I in lam to discuss briefly the much important observations, which may be useful to the countrified ministry. 1. Communication has three parties. Translation theory shares a public figure of concerns with what is commonly called conference theory. Perhaps the approximately important observation which the communication theorists grow establishd for translators is the science that every act of communication has three dimensions Speaker (or author), Message, and Audience.The much than we earth-closet kn ow about the original author, the actual message produced by that author, and the original audience, the meliorate acquainted we will be with that token act of communication. An cognisantness of this tri-partite character of communication can be very useful for interpreters. Assuming that an act of communication is right now taking enthrone, as you read what I wrote, there are three dimensions to this crabby act of communication myself, and what I am intending to egest the actual words which are on this page and what you infrastand me to be saying.When the three dimensions converge, the communication has been efficient. If we know, perhaps from another source, what an individual authors circumstances are, this may support us project the actual message produced. Martin Luther King, Jr. s Letters from Prison are recrudesce unders aliked by someone who knows the circumstances under which they were written rather than by someone who is oblivious to mid-20th century American his tory. If we know instruction about the authors audience, this may also serving us to visualize the message itself.John Kennedys famous, Ich bin ein Berliner speech is better understood if one understands the apprehensions which many West German citizens had about American foreign policy during the primal 1960s (and, knowing the audience was German may encourage explain why he did not speak this sentence in position ). Recognizing that in add onition to the message itself, there are the two other components of author and audience, the interpreter tastes to uncover as much information as practical about the author and audience.This is why biblical scholars spend so much magazine attempting to locate the circumstances of a accustomed epistle they are trying to discover information about author and audience, which will ease complete the understanding of the particular act of communication represented by the message. At this point, an important warning needs to be expressed. F or students of literature whose original audience and author are not present (i. e. , dead), we only put one across direct access to one of the three parties in the communicative process the message itself.Whereas we would be profited by having direct access to author and audience (Paul, what in the world did you smashed about baptizing for the dead? or, How did it crash you Galatians when Paul said he wished his troublers would castrate themselves? ), it would be incorrect to suggest that we must have such access for any understanding to take place. oftentimes one encounters the extravagant statement to the effect that one cannot understand a biblical book unless one understands the authors (or audiences) circumstances.The problem with such statements is that they imply that we can have no understanding without access to information which simply does not always exist. We havent any idea who wrote the epistle to the Hebrews, or why, other than what may be indicated in the lette r itself. Does this mean that we cant understand it in any sense? I think not. We just have to recognize that information, which would assist the act of interpretation, is, in this case, missing. colligate to this warning is a second.For Protestants, scripture itself is authoritative. Our reconstructions, often highly conjectural of the historical circumstances under which a give biblical work was written and read, are not authoritative, by my understanding of Protestant theology. Those reconstructions may assist our understanding of the biblical text, yet they are not, in and of themselves, of any religious authority. Finally, we qualification add that the essential error of many exegetical theories is their exclusion of one or more of these three parties from consideration.While many important debates are continuing to warp interpretive theory, our evaluation of these debates would do well to retain a role for each of the three above-mentioned dimensions. 2. Formal and Dynami c Equivalence One of the current debates about translations revolves around the question of whether, and in what degree, the translation should reflect the syntax, or form, of the original language. All translators agree that the translation should reflect fast(prenominal)ly the message of the original, provided all are not agreed on whether the translation should bandage closely to the well-formed forms of the original language.Translations can be located on a spectrum, which would have, at one extreme, rigid adherence to the form of the original language ( statuesque equivalence), and at the other extreme, complete disregard for the form (not the message) of the original language ( energising equivalence). An interlinear would come the closest to the world-class extreme, followed by the NASB. At the other extreme would be the NEB and TEV. In amidst would be the RSV and NIV, with the RSV leaning more toward a formal equivalence, and the NIV leaning more toward a dynamic equ ivalence.It is probably fair to say that almost contemporary linguists favor the dynamic equivalence approach in theory, though they might be disappointed in the various attempts at producing one. The reason for preferring to cat the thought of the original without attempting to conform to its form is that all languages have their own syntax. While the syntax of one language may be similar to the syntax of other languages, it is also dissimilar as well. Thus, if we attempt to adhere to the formal syntax of another language, we reproduce forms which are abnormal or confusing, if not downright distracting in the target language.For example, Greek tends to have very enormous sentences, whose various clauses are arranged in a logically hierarchical fashion. That is, there will be a number of dependent clauses connected to an supreme clause. This type of sentence structure, perfectly normal in Greek, is called hypotactic (clauses are arranged logically under one another). English, by contrast, is not so comfortable with big sentences, and does not provide any easy way of indicating which clauses are dependent upon others.Our sentence structure is called paratactic (clauses are arranged logically alongside of one another). If we attempt to reproduce, in English, sentences of the same length as the Greek original, our audience will not be able to follow our translation. Ephesians 13-14, for instance, is one sentence in Greek, with well-defined subordinate clauses. If we attempt to reproduce a sentence of this length in English, the result will be so awkward that few, if any, English readers would be able to follow it. Consequently, translators must break the longer Greek sentences into shorter English sentences.For the pastor and teacher, it is important to be able to recognize the hypotactic structure of the original language, because it is ofttimes of theological and ethical significance. For instance, there is only one imperative (independent clause) in the G reat Commission make disciples. All the other verbs are dependent. The other clauses help to describe what the commandment means. Most English translations, however, obscure this matter by translating the Great Commission as though it were a string of equivalent imperatives.Whats worse, they tend to treat one of the dependent clauses as though it were the major (independent) clause (Go). So the teacher or pastor needs to be able to understand what is going on in the structure of the original language, without necessarily trying to reproduce it in an English translation. There are other differences between the two languages. Greek typically uses passive verbs English prefers active verbs. Greek typically makes nouns out of verbs (making redemption as common as redeem). Speakers of English are not as comfortable with these abstractions we are happier with verbs.A dynamic equivalence translation will commonly reproduce the content of the Greek in a more natural manner in English. In 2 Thess 213, for instance, pistei aletheias, is translated belief in the truth (formal equivalence) by the RSV, but the truth that you believe (dynamic equivalence) by the NEB. The latter, turn not any more faithful than the former, is a little more natural, and thus more easily understood. A classic example of the difference between English and Greek syntax is evidenced by the difference in their respective employment of the participle. First, the Greek participle is much more common than the English. nevertheless the Greek participle is also utilise differently than the English participle. Greek commonly employs the participle in an attributive fashion, as a verbal adjective. This is very rare in English. James Taylor does sing about the The Walking Man, but this is rare outside of artistic expression. We would normally produce a relative clause, the man who walks. Because of the differences in the way the two languages use their respective participles, we simply cannot trans late a Greek participle with an English participle in many cases, without macrocosm obscure or ambiguous.Dikaiothentes in Romans 51 should not be translated, having been justified (NASB formal equivalence), but, since we are justified (RSV dynamic equivalence). There are problems, however, with dynamic equivalence translations. Since the translator is freer from the grammatical forms of the original language he is more likely to exceed the bounds of an accurate translation, in an effort to speak by nature in the native language. That is, the dynamic equivalence translations are capable of being more natural and more precise than are formal equivalence translations, but they are also more capable of being precisely wrong.For instance, in Romans 83, Paul uses the phrase dia tes sarkos. A formal equivalent translation, the RSV, renders this by the flesh, which is faithful to the original but somewhat ambiguous in English. The NIV renders this much more precisely, by the phrase, by th e sinful nature. Unfortunately, the NIV is precisely wrong here, because Paul is not talk of the town about a lower nature, or a sinful nature at all. In fact, he is not harangue anthropologically, but redemptive-historically.In this particular case, I believe we would be better off with the ambiguous flesh, and have to ask what, flesh means for Paul, than to have the more precise but utterly un-Pauline sinful nature. Another problem associated with dynamic equivalence translations is related to their use as discipline Bibles. Since a given word may have a number of imports, it is frequently impossible, and more frequently confusing, to attempt to translate a given Greek word with the same English word in every case. Consequently, the dynamic equivalence translation can give a morespecific rendering in English, being unbound by an attempt to reproduce the same Greek word in the same English manner. This produces better understanding, frequently, of individual sentences or cla uses. However, it does not permit the English reader to know when the same Greek word lay behind two different English words. Since the only way to know what a word means is by first examining its entire range of uses, there is no way for the English reader to know what words are behind the English words found.For instance, when Paul says he could not address the Corinthians as pneumatikoi, but rather as sarkinoi (1 Cor 3), he employs the adjectival forms of what we normally translate Spirit and flesh. And, in Romans 8 (as well as elsewhere), it is clear that life in the Spirit is redeemed life whereas life in the flesh is ill-fated life. If the adjectives in 1 Cor are translated spiritual, and fleshly, the reader can see the correspondence to other Pauline passages, and understand that Paul is saying, in effect, I could not address you as redeemed people, but as unredeemed people. But the NIV construes sarx as sinful nature in Rom 8, and sarkinos as worldly in 1 Cor 3, with the result that the reader of this translation is not aware that in the original the same subject form was employed. The conclusion of this is that the dynamic equivalence translation, when done well, renders in more precise and more vivid English particular expressions. However, it makes it more difficult to compare individual passages with parallel passages elsewhere. In any given congregation, a variety of translations will be present.The teachers in the church must have the competence to discern which one represents the original most accurately in English in any circumstance. In my judgment, none of the contemporary translations is manifestly superior to the others. Each is a blend of strengths and weaknesses, due to the difficulty of the task. From the pulpit, of course, some versions can be excluded rather easily. Paraphrases, while useful to illustrate a point, should never be apply as the basic sermon text, because they reflect so thoroughly the opinions of the paraphraser.Als o, childrens Bibles, such as the Good News, and, to a lesser degree, the NIV should not be used as the basis of a sermon directed toward the entire congregation. The NASB should not be used, simply because its English is atrocious. Its rigid adherence to the formal equivalence principle, while making it highly useful in the study, renders it completely inappropriate in a setting where communication is important. The NIV should not be used from the pulpit, in my judgment, because it is a sectarian translation.It is a self-confessedly evangelical translation, which excluded non-evangelicals from the translation process. It is therefore ecclesiastically unacceptable (it excludes from the outset people who dont call themselves evangelical, just as the landed estate Translation excludes people who dont call themselves Jehovahs Witnesses). In fact, even for study purposes, one will have to be cautious about the evangelical bias reflected in this translation, whereby the weaknesses, as we ll as the strengths, of evangelicalism have not been offset by a more inclusive committee.Specifically, the NIV shows many signs of being individualistic, experientialist, and revivalistic (I am speaking about the NIV New Testament I havent evaluated the NIV Old Testament thoroughly yet). At the same time, the NIV ought to be in the ministers study because it is a good illustration of the demands of a dynamic equivalence translation, and it is also very successful at many points. The RSV, reflecting the breadth of the church, a high style of English, and a reasonably accurate representation of the original text, is perhaps the preferred text for pulpit use.3.Translation is a theological task It has become increasingly clear that translation cannot truly be performed in a theological vacuum. When a variety of linguistic natural selections present themselves, theological factors can influence the decision to choose one option over the other. In fact, such factors should influence t he translation. The resolution of the translation question about how to translate telos in Romans 104 is resolved in swelled part by resolving large questions about Pauls theology how he understands the relation between the older testament and the Christ event, etc.Since theology is to be de limitined by the Bible, and since translating the Bible is determined, at least in part, by theological considerations, it is easy to see that there is something of a circle here. Fortunately, it is not a vicious cycle, because if one is willing to entertain sympathetically a variety of options, one can grow in the confidence with which one evaluates a given translation. One must never pretend, however, that translation is a step of pre-exegesis or pre-interpretation. The first step of interpretation istranslation.This step will influence all other steps, so it must be approached with the entire arsenal of theological tools. semantic Theory It is appropriate now to move to some consideration of dealing with the meaning of individual words (commonly called lexical semantics). A lexicon in the hands of an over-imaginative preacher may be the deadliest of all human instruments. In terms of sheer percentages, more pulpit nonsense may be attributable to a misunderstanding of how words convey meaning than any other interpretive error.Since the technical study of linguistics began in the early nineteenth century, a number of very valuable insights have been discovered by the linguists. What follows is an attempt at providing some of their most useful insights for those who want to teach and preach faithfully. 1. Semantic Field and Context Most words can mean a number of things. Take the English word, ravel out. It can appear in the following (and many more) contexts The athlete is running. Her nose is running. We scored a run in the 6th inning. I have a run in my stocking. Does your car run? My computer runs on Windows.For how long is the movie running? You want to run tha t by me again? His sermons seem to run on forever. Shes running the flag up the pole. Jackson is running for President. Who left the water running? Enough, already. It is obvious that most words can mean a number of different things. How do we know what a word means in a given circumstance? Well, we dont just choose the one we prefer. In fact there are two components to meaning semantic field and semantic context. By semantic field, we mean the full range of ways the word has and can be used (an example is the above, partial semantic field for run).By examining the field of possible meanings, we begin to narrow the options. Normally, there are still too many options, so we have to take another step. The second step is to determine the semantic context. If run, for instance, can refer to rapid, bipedal locomotion in some contexts, we can eliminate that option in contexts where there are no legs or feet. If run can mean flow, or drip, it is a possible way of understanding it where nos es and faucets appear, but not where liquids do not appear.In everyday speech, we do this kind of comparison to semantic context so rapidly and unreflectively that we are not normally aware of doing it. But we do it nevertheless, and normally with great accuracy. It is imperative that we do this with biblical literature as well. No word brings its full semantic field with it into any given context. Yet many fanciful pulpit statements are due to the attempt to do this very thing. 2. Root Meanings many an(prenominal) people speak of root meanings. Many people speak of ghosts. Neither exists.Apparently, when people speak of root meanings of words, they are attempting to find the distilled essence, or the common semantic range of the word in each of its contexts. This may, by dumb luck, work in some circumstances, but it wont work in most. What common root meaning is there in the word run which can account for the variety of uses listed above? Is it motion? Perhaps, for the athlete, t he flag, even the nose (which doesnt move itself, but its contents do). But is there any motion involved in the statement that a person is running for an office?Is any motion taking place when a movie runs for six weeks? Is a run in a stocking a movement of some sort? I fail to see how there is, without redefining the word motion to include virtually everything. And if we do this, then we arent learning anything specific about the term in question (This is the practical deficiency of the Componential abridgment approach to Semantics if one finds an element common enough to be related to all the various uses, it isnt specific enough to be any real help in any given context). In actual fact, we dont really know why people use terms in such a across-the-board range of ways as they do.But the answer certainly doesnt lie in the fact of some alleged root meaning, common to all uses. Thus, for interpretations sake, it is better not to speak of root meanings at all. Just look at the enti re semantic field, and then limit that field by the contextual considerations. This doesnt mean that there are no similarities in the variety of a terms uses. If we return to run, we can determine several sub-fields. We can see run used of liquids, to indicate they are flowing. We can see run used with machines to indicate that they are operating as they should.We can see it used in elongation to putting one foot ahead of another repeatedly, in rapid succession, which would embrace the athlete, and, by extension, the runs in a baseball game (which are a short-hand reference to someone running around the bases). But these fields do not appear to be related to each other, and worse, these fields do not account for the stocking or the flag. Perhaps we ought to just bring root meanings out once a year, on October 31st, and then put them back for the rest of the year. 3. Etymologies and Semantic Change Etymology is a perfectly valid field of study.Etymology is the study of the history o f a words usage. It has the historical benefit of demonstrating to us what a word might have meant in a given period. One thing etymologists have discovered, of course, is that words change over time. That is, people apparently use terms in an increasing variety of ways, extending known usages, and coining new usages. Thus, the history of a words usage is not necessarily any help in determining its meaning in a particular context. And certainly it is not the case that the earliest known meaning is the true, real, or, need I say it, root meaning.Gay, for instance, might well have meant happy or carefree in certain places in certain times. It most emphatically does not mean that today in San Francisco. Do not be misled a happy hour at a gay bar may be a very miserable incur for a heterosexual teetotaler. The biblical interpreter is not particularly interested in what a term may have meant several centuries prior to the time in question. Rather, the biblical interpreter wants to know what range of meaning a term had in the period in question. Etymology is not particularly helpful as a guide to the meaning of a term in any given context.Semantic context is the more reliable guide. 4. Polyvalency You may run across (oops, another use of run) this term from time to time, so you may as well know what it means. Polyvalency refers to the ability of a given term to have a number of meanings in any given historical period. Run is polyvalent. It is important for the interpreter to be aware of the full range of possible meanings of a given word, before determining what it means in its given context. 5. Words and Concepts For the sake of clarity, it is helpful to distinguish between a word and a concept.Most words can be employed to denote a number of concepts, and most concepts can be addressed by using a range of terms. Thus, charis is a word grace is a concept which can be labeled in a variety of ways. So, if you want to study, The Grace of matinee idol in the New Test ament, you would certainly include not only a word study of charis, but also passages which refer to Gods gracious activity without employing that particular term. For instance, the parable of the laborers in the vineyard reflects Gods gracious character, as those who come along late in the day receive equal recompense with those who have big(p) all day.God graciously gives the kingdom not only to the Jews, but also to the Gentiles, who come on the scene a bit late, redemptive-historically speaking. 6. Semantic minimal art One of the best axioms to apply when attempting to discover the meaning of any given word was first coined by Ferdinand de Saussure and his followers. The best meaning of a given term is the meaning which contributes the least to the overall meaning of the sentence. In most communication acts, we do not load up a given word with a lot of meaning.Rather, we speak in paragraphs and sentences the individual words have little meaning in and of themselves, but much meaning when tied to one another. Many seminarians and preachers seem to be unaware of this, for they frequently interpret the Bible as though its individual words were almost magical, possessing great truths and mysteries in six or seven letters. There are very few technical terms in any language, which are more heavily loaded than most words. Concluding Observations If one were to state briefly the results of linguistic study in the last few generations, one would certainly have to refer to the importance of context. linguistics has made us repeatedly aware of the fact that the fundamental communicative unit is the sentence, not the word. Individual words, removed from the context of a sentence, rarely communicate effectively. Words strung together, mutually supporting and interpreting one another, can communicate very effectively. For biblical students, this means that we must look at the larger unites of communication (the sentence and paragraph) at least as seriously as we look at individual words. We must be aware of the fact that a given word can signify a number of different things in a number of different contexts.Personally, I would like to see more sermons on whole chapters of scripture, and even on entire books, and fewer sermons on a verse here or there. If a person can produce a single 20-minute distillation of Romans 1-11, he can certainly handle Romans 63 when it shows up. If the contextual emphasis of contemporary linguistics can help us see the forest of a biblical book, as opposed to merely the trees of individual words, it will have done us and Gods kingdom a great service. ________________________________________ Dr. T.David Gordon, a native of Richmond, VA, is currently Professor of Religion and Greek at Grove City College in Grove City, PA, where he has served since 1999. Previously, he had taught for bakers dozen years at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. ________________________________________ TRANSLATION METHODS WORD FOR WORD tr anslation The SL word order is preserved and the words translated by their most common meanings. ethnical words are translated literally. The main use of this method is either to understand the mechanics of the source language or to construe a difficult text as pre-translation process. LITERAL translation The SL grammatical constructions are born-again to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical items are again translated out of context. As pre-translation process, it indicates problems to be solved. FAITHFUL translation It attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It transfers cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical deviation from SL norms. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer. SEMANTIC translation It differs from faithful translation only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text, compromising on meaning where appropriate so that no assonance, word play or repeating jars in the finished version. It does not rely on cultural equivalence and makes very small concessions to the readership. While faithful translation is dogmatic, semantic translation is more flexible. COMMUNICATIVE translation It attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both language and content are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.IDIOMATIC translation It reproduces the message of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms. FREE translation It reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original. ADAPTATION This is the freest form of translation mainly used for plays and poetry themes, characters, plots preserved, SL culture converted to TL culture and text is rewritten. From A Textbook of Translation by P. Newmark

Compare and Contrast Poems by John Donne and Michael Drayton Essay Example for Free

Compare and Contrast Poems by John Donne and Michael Drayton EssayThe rime, To his coy mistress is in truth lots Carpe Diem but the poet Andrew Marvell who wrote it was influenced by cardinal Metaphysical and Classical types of poetry, the way in the beginning of the verse form he seems to talk roughly things in a very slow way, walking, time slow down to try to woe the women in a much quicker, the poem also shows a lot of Petrachan influences as when Andrew Marvell says Thine eyes, and on thy forehead gaze and Thy kayo sh every(prenominal) no more be found. The poem is very much more in use of words that show the women in which the poem is talking about(predicate) as being a goddess as I said earlier this seems to play a large part in the poem. poem which is also very Carpe Diem is, to the virgins, to make much of time, this poem uses irregular (starvea) stress and unstressed words, but does have a regular amount of feet throughout the poem. The poem The Flea is very di vers(prenominal) to the other two before, it is a metaphysical poem which is much more interesting, it uses a much more dialectic view of wooing a women.It uses the item that as a flea has bitten both the poet and the women of whom he is in screw with, that it means that there are three lives all together in one and that him and his love almost more than maryed are. The structure of the poem uses the end of each paragraph as a conclusion for what it has just been stating. The poem uses imagery as it describes the two lovers together in the Flea with its dark walls of Jet referring to the colour jet black as there is no light in the Flea.At the end of the poem it shows that the women is wanting to kill the flea and he is comparing himself to the flea and saying that the flea is innocent because all it has done is take a tiny prick of blood from her and is it really worth the fleas life. The poet is using the idea of persuasion on the women by using the flea as an example. When it comes to the conclusion of the last paragraph it shows the poets persuasion again for that by the women killing the flea it has taken a small bit of life away rom her as it bit her and took some of her blood. The poet is much more different to the previous poets also as his persuasion has much more of a point to it, and uses a more intelligent argument against the women. The next poem was Song. To Celia, this is a classical poem which emphasises carpe diem is interesting. The poem is non in a common dialectic structure, it does have a felling that the poem is mainly based on the, fast, quick, instant love at the go of the poem.The poem involves a very large part at the end of an affair scene where Ben Johnson writes Of a few household spies? Or his easier ears beguile, this is speaking about the servants of the house in which the women which the man is involved with stays at, that they will only have to trick the servants from seeing them together. The structure of the poem is do ne using riming couplets and a trochaic tetrameter, the poem can be related to, to his Coy Mistress as it is also Carpe Diem.The poem, The Passionate Shepherd to His Love this poem is a very stereotypical one as it portrays an idealised view of the country, it shows a much pastured view of the countryside. The poem is trochaic and it keeps a steady a,a,b,b pattern. The poet obviously did not have any view of the country and was probably a city person. The poem speaks about him and his love being whisked away into the countryside to live there in peace, with beds of roses for his love.The view of country is very much like a place that would be very hard to find in life it is a much idealised view. The poem Sonnet is a very strange one it does not have a set pattern for its rhythm and is very staggered. It involves the poet explaining all the different ways in which he loves the women in speaking. It uses classical influences with the poem having no persuasive felling to it. The poet uses Petrachan factors as the poet says about he loves all the aspects of the women, her breath, loving her freely, and purely.

Dabur PESTEL Analysis

Dabur PESTEL AnalysisINTRODUCTIONThe Dabur company was established in 1884, a young doctor armed with a degree in medicine and a burning desire to serve mankind. This young man, Dr. S.K. Burman, laid the foundations of what is today known as Dabur India Limited.The brand name Dabur is derived from the manner of speaking Da for Daktar or Doctor and bur from Burman. From those humble beginnings, the company has grown into Indias leading manufacturer of consumer healthc atomic number 18, personal cargon and food products. Over its 125 historic period of existence, the Dabur brand has stood for goodness through a natural lifestyle. An umbrella name for a variety of products, ranging from hair care to honey, Dabur has consistently ranked among Indias top brands. Its brands are built on the foundation of trust that a Dabur offering will never cause anyone slightest of harm. The trust levels that this brand enjoys are phenomenally high.Dabur India Limited has pronounced its presence with signifi stoolt achievements and today commands a market attractership status. There story of success is based on dedication to nature, corpo browse and process hygiene, self-propelling leadership and commitment to their partners and stakeholders. The results of their policies and initiatives speak for them. The company has kept an eye on new generations of customers with a range of products that cater to a modern lifestyle, while managing non to alienate earlier generations of loyal customers.Dabur India Limited is the fourth largest FMCG Company in India and Dabur had a turnoer ofapproximately US$ 750 Million (Rs. 3390.9 Crore FY 09-10) Market Capitalisation of over US$ 3.5 Billion (Rs 15500 Crore).Dabur Amla, Dabur Chyawanprash, Vatika, Hajmola and Real are the brands of Dabur.Dabur is an investor friendly brand as its financial performance shows. The companys exploitation rate rose from 10% to 40%. The expected growth rate for two years was two-fold. There is an abundance of information for its investors and prospective information including a daily update on the share price (something that actually few Indian brands do). Theres a great mavin of responsibility for investors funds on view. This is a direct extension of Daburs philosophy of taking care of its constituents and it adds to the sense of trust for the brand overall.The company, through Dabur Pharma Ltd. does toxicology tests and markets ayurvedic medicines in a scientific manner. They have researched new medicines which will find use in O.T. all over the country therein opening a new market. Dabur Foods, a subsidiary of Dabur India is expecting to grow at 25%. Its brands of juices, namely, Real and Active, together make it the market leader in the Fruit Juice Category.PESTEL ANALYSIS ON DABUR INDUSTRY(P)OLITICAL FACTORSGovernment intervences Government support the industry to expand to export its products to grow.Trading policies Trading policies are also favourable for dabur company so it can export its products it also help him to expand to grow.(E)CONOMIC FACTORSConsumer focus they are continuously focussing on analysing the consumer inescapably develop products to fulfill there needs. This is the main reason for the growth of Dabur company.Living standard Rise in the living standard of people have change magnitude their production level, produce high quality variety of products.National income National income is all important(p) factor as if affect the growth of the organisation. If per capita income is more the amount expire will be more if it will be rase the amount spent will be less.Inflation rate Inflation means the upgrade in the value of all the product in the economy, if inflation rate is higher the cost of products will be higher if inflation rate is lower the cost of product will be lower. This directly affect the growth of the organization.(S)OCIO-CULTURAL FACTORSDemographics Demographics is the study of human population in the econ omy. It helps the organzation to divide the markets in different segments to localize a large of customers. For Example- according to race, age, gender, family, religion, sex.Distribution of income This shows that how income is distributed in the ecconomy. It directly affect the purchasing power of the buyers. And ultimately leads to increase or decrease in the function level of the products.Consumerism This indicates that a large number of options are available while purchasing of goods to consumers, so the choice becomes easy quality products can be exact by consumers. So while purchasing a consumer have different choices to select product according to his needs.Education levels Education is one of the most important factor which influence the buying power of consumer, while selecting a particular good a consumer should know all its features so it can differentiate them with some other products.Law affect social behaviour Different laws are made by the government to safe guard the rights of consumers. For example- Consumer apology act, this law indicates that a consumer can file a case against a seller if he finds that he is cheated.(T)ECHNOLOGICAL FACTORSDiscoveries innovation Continuous innovation in products processes is the basis of there services. They provide consumers with advanced(a) products within easy reach Build a platform to enable Dabur to become a global ayurvedic leader.Advancement in technology Focus on growing there core brands across categories, reaching out to new geographies, within and outside India, and improve operational efficiencies by leveraging technology.Automation agitate in technology will leads to automation, this means that with new technology labour required is less as machines are automatic. All the works are through automatically by the machines as earlier it is labour oriented. Now all the work is machine oriented.Obselete rate Day-by-day new inventions are made so the rate of obselete is higher, as in Computer LAPTOPS have replaced the PC. This shows that the technology becomes obselete very fast.Research development This department plays a vital role in the development of the organization. As this department always do research that what are the demand of the markets how to make advancements so the organization can survive in the competitive world.(E)NVIRONMENTAL FACTORSEnvironment regulations The preferred company to meet the health and personal grooming needs of there target consumers with safe, efficacious, natural solutions by synthesizing the deep knowledge of ayurveda and herbs with modern science.Environmental guard Responsible company to protect Ecological system use Eco-friendly products.(L)EGAL FACTORSCompanies law The company fulfill all the Company law requirement so as to grow develop to sustain in the compitative market.Employment law Employment law provides equal opportunities to every citizen to work earn his livelihood. It provides equal opportunitie s to every citizen.Consumer protection This law helps to protect the rights of consumers he can file a case against seller if he find that he is cheated.Industry-specific regulations These laws are related to industry for example- no industry can establish in between cities i.e. it should be outside the cities.

Mergers and Acquisitions in the Aviation Industry

Mergers and Acquisitions in the Aviation IndustryBackgroundAviation persistence is a symbol of comprehensive national force-out and an extremely important part of the national defense. It is also a significant guarantee for national security and an essential support for the development of economic and society. In the entire zephyr industry, civil line is made up of all types of air travel activities using aircraft except military applications, which includes defense, police and customs, and the civil aviation includes technical aviation and general aviation. In recent years, the rapid development of civil aviation plays an increasingly important role in the aviation industry.In impairment of globalization, the aviation industry is mainly concentrated in the unify States, Europe, Canada, Australia and some other developed regions. Along with the rapid development of the global economy, the enthusiasm for growing aviation industry of many rude(a) industrialized countries has also been greatly inspired. A number of high-end manufacturing, including the aviation industry, are shifting from developed countries to developing countries, to get word the global market demand, many developed countries and developing countries began the cooperation. The economic turmoil and financial crisis of the current world has caused a great shock on aviation industry, although the condition is getting improved, it is still very difficult to predict what the future will be. As one of the leaders of the aviation industry all over the world, the market of aviation industry in the United States has been greatly affected in recent years. The fallen price of tickets, rising price of oil, as easily as anti-monopoly policy, all have negative impacts on the civil aviation industry in America.Merger integration is trend of the development of international aviation industry in recent years. There are many examples In Europe, Air France and KLM Royal Dutch Airlines were structured in 2003 Lufthansa purchased Swiss Air in 2005, and later purchased the Austrian Airlines British Airways and Iberia Airlines merged in 2010 . After a series of mergers and reorganizations, the market is full of vitality and militant power. In the United States in recent years, the operation of civil aviation industry has become much more difficult and many airline companies are seeking to break by dint of this condition by mergers and acquisitions. In 2005, US Airways merged America West Airlines Delta Air Lines purchased Northwest Airlines in 2008 two years later, the United Airlines and Continental Airlines were merged and turned into the United Continental Holdings incorporated in 2011, Southwest Airlines purchased the AirTran and after two years, American Airlines merged US Airways. After the mergers and reorganizations, these companies operating performance begins to approach out of recession, but whether the specific results really are optimistic? This dissertation will mak e analysis and judgment.Congress reduced the control of the market in 1978, which brought the US economy market unparalleled interests. America has a mature aviation industry market, which has become an important factor of the growth of economy now. crimson if there is a little change in the industry, it can bring a big influence on various aspects. In this tough competitive environment at home and abroad, the civil aviation industry attracts much more attention.Concentration TendencyIn recent years, the aviation industry in the United States had generated a lot of new companies and there have been a lot of bankruptcy and merger phenomena, which is bound to affect the competition tendency of the aviation industry. In this dissertation, the methods used to calculate the concentration of aviation industry are Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) and Concentration Ratio (CRn).The calculation method of industry concentration indicant is the most common, and it is also an important indicat or of measuring the market structure. It indicates the peak of concentration of the industry by calculating the proportion of the relevant value (such as sales, value added, number of employees, total assets, etc.) of the first largest n companies in the industry toward those of the entire industry. For example, CR4 refers to the relevant market share occupied by the four largest initiatives and CR8 way the relevant market share occupied by the eight largest enterprises.If the CRn is greater, it indicating a higher degree of concentration of the industry and the more likely for competition in the market tend to be monopolistic on the contrary, the lower the concentration is, the more likely for competition in the market tend to be competitive.(MBAlib, 2012)The prescript is CRn=. In this formula, Si means the market share of the enterprise i, n means the total number of firms (for instance, the number is 4 or 8.) in the industry.However, the outrage of CRn is that this concentra tion ratio cannot indicate the total number of enterprises which are operating and competitive in this industry. For example, the market share of 2 CR4 with the same value of 75% in two different industries might not be the same, because there may be only a few companies in one industry and the other industry may have many companies. Therefore, in the dissertation, HHI will be used to measure the market concentration to improve the credibility of the data.HHI calculates the entirety of the squares of market share of the largest 50 companies in this industry (if the number of companies is less than 50, it includes all enterprises). Obviously, the greater HHI is, the higher the degree of market concentration and the higher the degree of monopoly. The index can not only reflect the market share of large enterprises, but also can reflect the market structure too large enterprises. Therefore, HHI is able to reflect the impact of large enterprises on the market more accurately.The formu la is HHI=2. In this formula, Si means the market share of the enterprise i, n means the total number of firms in the industry. HHI changes between 1/n and 1, which indicates that the higher value is, the greater unevenness statistical distribution of the size of a firm. As long as firms merge, the value of HHI will increase as long as the firms decompose, the value of HHI will be reduced.The advantage of HHI are it reflects large-scale companies market share more sensitively, while reflects many small businesses market share very little, and it cannot be affected by the number of companies and the size distribution of the industry, which is better to measure the changes in the market concentration of the industry.(MBAlib, 2010)This table illustrates the set of CR4, CR8 and HHI in ten years. According to the concentration ratio CR4 and CR8, it can be patently found that the aviation industry was behaving as an oligopoly and was a highly concentrated industry, while in terms of HHI , the market concentration was moderate. All of the 3 values were keeping decreasing from 2001 to 2006 and appeared to hit bottom in 2007, in which year the economy crisis took place. After that, the tendency of market concentration was improved and reached a new height in 2013. (Ahren J. 2011)In summary, the level of market concentration of aviation industry was decreasing first and then keeping increasing in the United States. Accordingly, the competition tendency also turned from competitive to monopolistic, which indicates the number of companies was reduced and the market shares of large firms have increased.ReferencesMBAlib (2010) Concentration RatioCRnonlineNew York. Available from http//wiki.mbalib.com/wiki/%E8%B5%AB%E8%8A%AC%E8%BE%BE%E5%B0%94%E2%80%94%E8%B5%AB%E5%B8%8C%E6%9B%BC%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0 Accessed 29 January 2015Ahren Johnston (2011) CONCENTRATION IN THE AIRLINE INDUSTRY tell OF ECONOMIES OF SCALE?onlineNew York, Journal of Transportation Management. Available from http//www.deltanualpha.org/pdfarticles/2011/Ahren%20Johnston.pdf Accessed 29 January 2015MBAlib (2012) Herfindahl-Hirschman Index onlineNew York. Available from http//wiki.mbalib.com/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E4%B8%9A%E9%9B%86%E4%B8%AD%E7%8E%87 Accessed 29 January 2015

Impact Of Workplace Stress On Organizational Performance Psychology Essay

Impact Of Workplace Stress On Organizational Per degreeance Psychology EssayStress in the workplace is a new phenomenon in modern life and has become an increasingly one of the approximately discussed topic over the past decade. Workplace examine can be defined as the change in ones physical or mental state in response to workplaces that pose an appraised dispute or threat to that employee (Thomas W. Colligan, 2005). It is already established that the judge in the workplace represents threat non only for physical health of one worker, but also for the health of all labour collective. As a pull up s gains, it does not only affect the employees performance, reduces their work efficiency but also whitethorn come huge come to to an organisations performance and can lower an organisations utility (Ton, Huckman, 2008).Statistical figures indicate prove is a bigger problem than people give it credit (Ornelas and Kleiner, 2003). According to survey which was conducted by Health and Safety executive in 2006, one in six working people in the UK believed that their tune was very or extremely accentuateful (Bupas health schooling team, 2010). on that point ar many factors that can cause stress in the working place. Most known factors are work overload job insecurity capacious working hours insufficient training poor work organisation and etc. Workplace stress has been proved to lower productivity, increase absenteeism, and create pervasive patterns of dysfunction in the workplace (Anderson Puluch, 2001 Levin-Epstein, 2002).Finally, in modern day most of the organisations understand very well that one of the main reason of unwanted expenses of the organisation are the costs caused by stress according to the Health Safety Executive (HSE) in the UK, work-related stress, depression or anxiety accounted for an estimated 13.5 million lost working years in Britain in 2007/08. This makes stress an extremely expensive loss for businesses the HSE estimates that British industry loses 370 million a year due to stress (UK HSE stress statistics). Although, most organisations spend a lot of time, money and efforts to prevent or control the stress, unfortunately in most cases these efforts are not effective. Therefore organisations need to nonplus new ways to deal with increasing stress in working place.Scope of recordThis paper aims to explain an aspect of organizational performance that has not been extensively examined the impact of stress on organizational performance. The paper attempts to make an emphasis on how impact of stress in organizations can be comprehend and understood, and it also argues that the stress is an important element in the theory and practice of organizational performance.Research volition be carried out using both alternate data and primitive data in the forms of interviews and questionnaires with organisations.Specific Research QuestionsDo the organisations really take the impact of stress seriously and how t hey intend to deal with it? openingH 1 In spite of rising expenses, organisations leave subdued ignore impact of stress as useless knowledge.H 2 Having agnise the impact of stress organisations will develop new mechanism in minimising and controlling stress.ObjectivesO 1 To identify main factors behind workplace stressO 2 To evaluate the costs which are caused by stress at a workplace and how they impact on the organizational performance?O 3 To establish workable stress management techniques for managing the workplace stress.Literature reviewThis chapter will critically analyse the stress development process and its impact to organisational performance. The literature review is structured into two sections. The first section the theory of organizational stress examines the theory of stress development and the main factors of the organizational stress. The certify part reviews the impact of stress to an organisational performance and suggests ways how to manage it.Theory of orga nizational stressAccording to Cote S. Morgan LM (2002), stress is basically a form of unpleasant emotion and has got the potential to increase employee turnover. But other authors such as Hart and Cooper (2001) point out that the scientific community still has not reached an agreed position on the meaning and definition of occupational stress.In the past three decades, a lot of studies have been carried out in fellowship to explore the main factors of organisational stress and to find out link between employee job stress and organizational performance. The studies have been conducted in a assorted organisations. The early studies indicate deadline pressures, job dissatisfaction, job insecurity and repetitive work (Kasl, 1973) as the main factors of organisational stress. More recent studies have explored some others factors such as inadequate feedback regarding performance, lack of training and lack of control (Doby Caplan, 1995).The lack of opportunity of interaction with other workers or in other words isolation is other important factor in increasing workplace stress (Wachtel, 1989). The feeling of isolation does not only involve machinery or assembly line jobs, it may also take place in boring or repetitive jobs such as computer data entry which tend to increase employee stress levels (Karasek Theorell, 1990).Impact of stress to an organisational performance and how to manage itStress at workplaces is on rise which in its own turn results higher rate of sickness (absenteeism) among employees, reduced productivity and overall, having negative impact on the efficiency of organisational performance. Managing stress and its attendant health and productivity consequences may be one of the biggest challenges facing organizations in the mid-nineties (Murphy, 1995).In the article, Management Principles and Practices indite by Holt D. H. (1990), the author suggests that in vagabond to manage job stress effectively, two conditions should be met. First, the i ndividual worker essential be able to recognize causes of stress and realize their consequences and second, organizations must develop stress prevention and stress reduction techniques.The book Managing workplace stress written by Susan Cartwright, Cary L. Cooper (1997) can be considered one of the best book in the field of organisational stress. The book on the one hand provides detailed information about the source of stress at a workplace, examines the cause of the rise in work-related stress on the other hand, it proves clearly the important role of organisational gloss in stress managing process.According to Nelson Quick (1996) excess stress has direct impact in lowered individual and organizational performance, as a result both production and quality suffering. In other words, stress is a main factor that causes organizational inefficiency, absenteeism because of sickness, increased costs of health care and lessen job satisfaction (AbuAlRub, 2004).Meantime, both field and laboratory studies are always carried out to find out the best ways to reduce work-related stress. Some findings have been proved very effective. One of them is involvement of employee in decision making process that significantly lowers job-related stress (Landy, Quick and Kasl, 1994). Another finding is the measures developed by authors like Khanka (2000) and Cole (2002) which can be adopted to reduce workplace stress. The measures require the organisations to set up clear objectives that will assist to minimize job and role ambiguity to maximize employees job fit through careful screening and selection.Specific questions to focus on in the studyThis study seeks to manage the following research questionsObjective 1Identify what stress is and main factors behind stress at a workplace?Is there a alliance between impact of stress and organisational performance?What is role of stress in organisational productivity?What are the roles of the modern technologies in rising workplace str ess?Does stress have always negative impact or can it have positive impact to organisational performance as well?Objective 2why is it important to manage causes of work-related stress?Apart from financial cost, what affects have stress on organisational performance?What is best strategies and techniques for preventing job stressWhat is role of organisational culture/ mode in reducing stress?MethodologyThe section will assess all available research methods and choose most suitable methods in order to accomplish the proposed tasks. Main aim of the section is to find out how seriously is taken the impact of stress by organisations.5.1 Approaches to researchFor all objective of this study the author will be using a scientific approach. The author intends to use statistical data throughout the research to support the analysis.5.2 Research formMultiple method of data collection will be used for this study. The reason for this is that using mixing modes will maximise responses as the auth or plans to take interview from some respondents face-to-face, from others by mail. In addition, a structured questionnaire will be used to collect data from the respondents on the variables of the study.5.3 SamplingSampling is a fundamental method of inferring information about an entire people without going into any trouble or expense of measuring every member of the population (White, Wilson Pfoutz, 2006). As this study will be carrying out survey, random sampling technique will be used in the sample selection. Sampling will be conducted in both interview and questionnaire forms.5.4 Data collectionThough, the study includes both primary and secondary data, the author will mainly use primary data for this study. Face-to-face interviews will be carried out with representatives of a number of organisations. Because of time and physical constraints, questionnaires will be sent via e-mail. Secondary data will be gathered from different online libraries and databases.5.5 Evaluation o f primary research methods for this specific studySurveys and questionnaire will be used in the study in order to gather primary data. Main purpose of surveys are to assess the distribution of some variables such as proportion of the population of different age groups, sex, religion, castes and languages, knowledge, pose and adaption of practices about particular issues, and other information of similar nature about the population (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000).5.6 Possible Conclusion to research objectiveFrom this study, it can be cerebrate that stress can have both negative and positive impact on organisational performance. Organisations can encourage productive stress by assisting employees to build challenge into their work, can organise stress-reduction workshops and also can change element of stress by redesigning jobs to reduce role conflict and role ambiguity.

The Hutu Tribe :: essays research papers

The Hutu TribeThe culture of the Hutu and Tutsi tribes of Rwanda, Africa interests mefor many reasons. cardinal reason is that they are so diverse from our American wayof life. Another reason is that I have heard a little bit about them in thenews and by talking to lot. This sparked my interest and made me want tolearn more about them. I will over-correct a wide variety of information in my report.This will include the land where they live, their way of life, their history andancestry, and what the government is like in Rwanda. I dont expect the readerto become an expert on the Hutus and the Tutsis, hardly I do hope that the readergets a general understanding about what is going on in their section of Africa.I have intimate lots of new information from doing this report, not only aboutthe Hutus and the Tutsis culture, but about the whole continent of Africa.The first topic that I will cover is about the people that make up thetribes of the Hutu and Tutsi. The total population of the country of Rwanda,where most of their events have taken place is 7,800,000. The population of theHutus is 3,000,000 and the Tutsis number only 1,000,000. The sensible traits ofthe Hutus and Tutsis are very different from each other. The Hutu have largernoses and larger all around facial features than the Tutsis. Most Tutsis areseldom less than sextuplet feet tall, while the Hutu are very short people. TheTutsis are related to the Masai and the people along the Nile, while the Hutushave a Buntu history. As you can see the people that make up the tribes of theHutus and the Tutsis are a very diverse group of people.The way of life for the Hutu and the Tutsis is considerably different.Traditionally, the Tutsi were the wealthy, upper class and the Hutu were littlemore than slaves. forthwith the power is a little more equally divided, but is stillmore in favor of the Tutsis. The Hutu are mainly peasant farmers, while theTutsis are mainly animal stock breeders. One thing that the Hutu and the Tutsihave in common is that they are both a Buntu language speaking group. The basisof the natives trust is a belief that there is a supreme principle of goodknown as Imana. Followers of this religion use magical amulets in their rituals.One half of the people in Rwanda are Christian, and most of the Christians are

The Theme of Girl Power in Joy Luck Club and Taste of Honey :: Joy Luck Club Taste of Honey Amy Tan Essays

The Theme of Girl Power in Joy Luck beau monde and Taste of making loveJoy Luck Club and Taste of HoneyWomens rights is an issue of serious interest in much of todaysliterature. As more women take the pen in hand more and more femalecharacters take center stage in the stories they write. The newestterm for this focus on the powerful heroine is called Girl Power andthis strength of persona shtup be seen in two pieces of literature inparticular. The Joy Luck Club, by Amy Tan, and A Taste of Honey, byShelagh Delaney.In the Joy Luck Club Amy Tan write about the lives of four set aboutsfrom China who pass their lives wisdom d confess to their daughters whoare growing up on the outside shores of California, USA. Each ofthese women have a story to tell about growing up in the patriarchalsociety of china, how they overcame the stifling environment they grewup in and how they survived and escaped to the new world as itwere. The story of An Mei, Waverly Jongs mother, is an excellent exam ple ofhow women can take control of the situations that are forced upon themand make their lives better. In the novel An Mei is s one-time(a) into amarriage at the age of four. At fifteen, on her wedding day shediscovers she has been get hitched with to 13 year old boy, who no more wantsto be a husband than he does a father. An Mei is forced to sleep onthe floor and treated to the derisive comments and punishments of hermother in law when she fails to produce a child. However, overhearing a house servant who found herself pregnant, she devises a planto escape her ill-fated emotional state and out-trick her lying child-groom. Sheuses the superstitions of the traditional Chinese and her clever witto win a ticket out of the loveless marriage and back to Shanghaiwith her family. This tale, re-told by An Mei, shows how woman, pull downin dire situations, can take charge of their lives and make the mostof what they have.Rose Hsu Jordan is another one of Tans Characters that really take scharge of her living just when it seems she would be swallowed whole bya mans world. In this present day tale, a young woman find herselfmarried to man whose opinions she has grown to value above her own. She has forgotten how to value herself and fallen prey to the pitfallof pleasing her husband before taking care of her own needs.